Focus Groups, Experiments, and Observational Research

9.1 Focus Groups

The Focus Group

A focus group is an interview and discussion with a small group of people, generally consisting of 8 to 12 participants, plus the moderator, and note-taker/observer. Focus groups can test generalisations and theory, and aid in the development of questions to be used in a further, larger study on the topic in question

Researchers using focus groups are seeking evaluations, impressions, and opinions about an event, concept, or product from the target audience. A focus group can run from 1 to 2 hours in general. The moderator encourages participants to interact with each other in relation to the event/concept/product. The note-taker/observer takes notes and can bring the conversation back on track if the moderator has allowed it to wander to far from the focus of the interview (Cater & Low, 2012).

The Focus Group Setting

When conducting a focus group, the setting must be comfortable. Having comfortable chairs is a good place to start, the setting must be non-threatening with consideration given to a level of privacy. Focus groups have traditionally been conducted in an in-person face-to-face environment, however with technological advancement, including faster internet access, focus groups can now be conducted online (Jones et al., 2022).

With in-person focus groups you have recording equipment (audio or video-audio), consent forms (for signing), research information sheets (for participants to keep), and if required, writing implements, and paper/sticky notes. As these types of focus groups are conducted over 1 to 2 hours it is usual to provide refreshments for participants, such as tea, coffee, water, and biscuits. If the focus group is conducted around mealtime, you may provide sandwiches. The researcher may also provide each participant with a small thank you for participating, this could be a small box of chocolates for example (it would depend on your participants).

Online (or internet-mediated) focus groups can be synchronous by using Zoom, Microsoft Teams (Teams), or similar. Participants require a web-cam and microphone, both of which are generally built into a laptop or PC, or they may use another type of digital device, e.g., tablet, or mobile phone. Research information sheets and consent forms can be emailed to participants prior to the focus group participation to enable signing and return of the consent sheet. Recording these focus groups is easy for the moderator as this is an inbuilt function of Zoom, and Teams for example. The online environment allows participants to be comfortable in their own home and provides them with the power over their privacy while participating in the focus group. While participants in online focus groups cannot be provided with drinks or snacks, they can be given breaks to organise their own. When it comes to a small thank you an electronic gift card or similar may be appropriate.

Focus Group Formation

Recruiting members for focus groups very much depends on the research question and how many focus groups are required. Importantly, participants must have experience relevant to your research question.

The researcher(s) must then consider if the focus groups are going to be:

• Heterogeneous:
  • participants are strangers to each other
  • participants may have opposing views
  • risk of intense disagreement requires behaviour expectations to specified at the beginning and enforced to head off any conflict.
• Homogenous:
  • participants are of similar gender, ethnicity, age, or have similar occupations
  • participants may not know each other but are similar
  • participants know each other – this produces a greater risk of ‘group think’ occurring, where all have the same view.

Depending on the research question, members for focus groups may be sourced from within an organisation or club or community. For face-to-face focus groups, this could include posting notices at meeting places, emailing members, or approaching them in person. For online participant recruitment, digital flyers can be used, emails, digital newsletters, and social media ads (where platform permits), basically any digital approach that may reach those participants required (Halliday, et al., 2022).

The Moderator

The moderator is a very important, essential part of the focus group for a researcher whether it is a traditional focus group or online focus group. The moderator can be the researcher themselves or an experienced moderator. The moderator ensures each participant has received their information sheet and signed a consent to participate form. The moderator then begins recording the focus group and introduces the topic to participants. The moderator may take notes during the discussion, but never becomes the focal point of the discussion. The moderator is there to gently steer the participants to keep them on track, and ensure all participants have an equal chance to contribute to the discussion. The moderator may have an assistant who sits in the background and makes note of non-verbal cues of participants (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

Recording

When recruiting participants for your traditional or online focus group(s), you must make them aware that they will be recorded during the focus group discussion. Recordings now are generally audio and video (especially online) but may be just audio depending on the circumstances of the focus group. Each participant is provided with an information sheet explaining the purpose of the research and a consent form to sign, which includes agreeing to being recorded. The agreement to be recorded must be obtained from each participant prior to beginning the focus group discussion. Where online participants have previously agreed to being recorded, you must remind them prior to beginning any recording. If a participant declines to be recorded for any reason, you should politely ask them to leave the group as recording is essential for the study to continue. All the ethical requirements are detailed on the JCU Human Research Ethics website.

9.2 Experiments

Experimental Research

Experimental research is quantitative, involving two sets of variables. This type of research seeks to determine if there is a causal relationship between two (or more) variables. The strength and direction of any identified relationship between the two (or more) variables may also be identified.

Set one contains:

• at least one independent variable that is manipulated by the researcher(s)
• determines the effect on the second set of variables.

Set two contains:

• at least one dependent variable.

Experimental research is used in a variety of studies to support a wide range of decision-making. Results in experimental research are the likelihood that change did not occur by chance alone. As seen in Table 9.1, researchers report these results at a level of certainty or level of confidence (McNabb, 2021).

Table 9.1. Comparing levels of certainty and level of confidence

Design

There are 3 types of Experimental Research Design.

1. Pre-experimental research design
   

• used before true experiments
• conducted on small groups for the purpose of testing the research design.

Pre-experimental research designs include a one-shot case study design where some type of treatment is applied to a single case study sample group. Static group comparison where one group has experienced a phenomenon, and another similar group has not. There is no random allocation possible. One-group pretest and post-test design, here there is no control group. Each member of the experimental group undertakes a pretest, then the experiment occurs, then participants undertake a post-test.

2. Quasi-experimental design
   

• no random assignment of participants to experimental or control groups.

One type of quasi-experimental design is non-equivalent comparison groups design. Often the groups in this type of research design are already in existence. For example, the research may involve two football teams, one receives the intervention or treatment while the other does not. Each football team is one group, there are issues with this type of experiment though as there maybe differences between groups, such as age, income, status etc. This type of experiment is convenient for the researchers (DeCarlo, 2018).

3. True experimental research design
   

• True experimental research design involves testing a hypothesis to determine if there is a cause-and-effect relationship between two or more sets of variables.
• The 5 main characteristics of true experimental research are:
  • A treatment group – to experience the treatment or intervention.
  • A control group – do not experience the treatment or intervention.
  • Participants are randomly distributed to one of the two groups.
  • The independent variable(s) (treatment/intervention) are manipulated by the researcher(s).
  • Post-testing, and depending on the study, pre-testing. (Sallis et al., 2021)

Steps for Experimental Research Design

Experimental research has several steps to follow:

1. Determine the research question:

   • The research question emerges from the area of study the researcher is engaged in, and the literature review to determine any gaps within the literature relating to the area of study.
2. Determine independent and dependent variable(s):
   • Identify the independent variable or variables, this are the variables that are to be manipulated, that is, a treatment/intervention is used.
   • The independent variable(s) are expected to affect the outcome.
   • Dependent variable(s) are the outcome, these are the variable(s) expected to be affected by the independent variable(s) treatment/intervention.
   • Identify any confounding variables/conditions that may interfere or introduce bias into the results.
3. Define one or more hypotheses:
   • The hypothesis or hypotheses must be written so they are specific, testable statement(s).
   • The hypothesis is a concise statement about what you are expecting to find emerging from your research question.
   • The hypothesis is informed by results of previous research conducted in your area of study.
4. Identify a population for sampling:
   • Attention must be given to ensuring validity of the experiment.
   • Determine the correct sample size.
   • Determine any characteristics or other constraints that may reduce sample size, and how to overcome this issue.

5. Determine what approach should be used to assign participants to test/control groups:

   • Choose your experimental design from the large range of experimental research designs.
   • The experimental research design depends on the focus of your study.
   • Determine if you are going to assign participants to a group using complete randomisation or as a randomised block.
     • Complete randomisation does just that, it randomly assigns participants to the treatment or control group.
     • Randomised block is when the researcher considers any confounding variable, then assigns participants to a block based purely on that confounding variable. Once in a block participants are randomly assigned to a treatment or control group.

6. Based on your experimental research design, determine the most appropriate process to statistically analyse and interpret your experimental research results (McNabb, 2021).

9.3 Observational Research

Observational research is a non-experimental research approach associated with qualitative methods that aim to describe one or more variables. The researcher(s) generally observe participants to obtain a snapshot of their characteristics. Those observed may be individuals, groups, or people in a specific setting. Observational research cannot come to a causal conclusion as there is no manipulation or control of the situation (Price et al., n.d.).

Controlled Versus Uncontrolled Observational Studies

Controlled Observational Studies

Controlled (or structured) observations are undertaken in structured or artificial settings where the researcher(s) are interested in specific behaviours of participants. Highly controlled observational studies are where the situation/setting is contrived or manipulated by the researcher(s). The participants may be exposed to certain conditions/situations, or to a certain amount of time pressure. These types of studies permit the researcher(s) to observe the differences between individuals’ behavioural reactions to the situation. Controlled observation can be conducted in a laboratory (e.g., a simulated environment), or in the field (e.g., a retail store). Researcher(s) using controlled studies are obtaining quantitative data, they are only interested in a limited number of behaviours which they can then quantify (Price et al., n.d.).

Uncontrolled Observational Studies

With uncontrolled (or naturalistic) observations, the researcher(s) make no attempt to control, manipulate, or influence the situation. The researcher(s) do not interfere; they just observe events as they run their natural course in a real-life setting. The advantage of uncontrolled observations is that people are observed in their natural environment, for example, shopping or working. However, it can be very difficult to untangle more complex situations, and therefore it is hard to distinguish the causes of events, actions, and behaviours when nothing is controlled (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013).

Participant Versus Non-Participant Observation

When gathering observational data, the researcher can be a participant or a non-participant.

Participant Observation

When the researcher is an active participant in the research project, they can be a participant observer. For this approach, the researcher is participating in the daily life of the group/community/organisation in their natural setting that is under study while they are gathering data. This enables the researcher(s) to determine any differences between what people say, and what they do. Participant observation is a fieldwork approach included under ethnographic research, harking back to cultural and social anthropology. To be successful in this type of research the researcher must find a position in the field where they can become involved (Franco & Yang, 2021), for example, as a baker’s assistant in a bakery (Figure 9.3).

Non-Participant Observation

Non-participant observation means the researcher(s) are not directly or actively involved in the action of those being observed. Non-participant observation may be used when the researcher(s) are interested in studying social behaviours of a group of people or individuals that they are not part of. Here, they position themselves so they can see what is occurring and record the information, but not interact with those being observed (Figure 9.4). Non-participant research is also conducted using videos of specific situations, for example, riots, and protests. These can be dangerous situations where it is not practical to be a direct observer. The researcher(s) may also be interested in observing and identifying patterns of movement and social interaction in public spaces without interacting with those being observed (Williams, 2008).

Concealed Versus Unconcealed Observation

Concealed Observation

A concealed observation study is when the group under study is not told they are being observed. This is sometimes known as ‘disguised observation’. Concealed observational studies require a high level of detail when applying for ethics.

Advantages of concealed observation:

• Those under observation are not influenced by awareness of being observed.

Ethical problems with concealed observation:

• It may violate the principles of privacy, informed consent, and confidentiality.
  • For example, a researcher immersing themselves in a social group, within a department in an organisation, while concealing their purpose for being there.
• Less likely to cause harm to those observed would be a researcher observing how consumers navigate a supermarket.

Unconcealed Observation

Unconcealed (or undisguised) observational research sees the researcher(s) disclose their true identity to participants and let them know they are being observed.

Problems with unconcealed observation:

• The presence of the researcher can affect the behaviour of those being observed.
• This can threaten the validity of the study’s results. (Sekaran & Bougie, 2013)

References

Cater, C., & Low, T. (2012). Focus groups. In L. Dwyer, A. Gill & N. Seetaram (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in tourism: Quantitative and qualitative approaches (pp. 352-364). Edward Elgar.

DeCarlo, M. (2018). Scientific inquiry in social work. Open Social Work Education. https://pressbooks.pub/scientificinquiryinsocialwork/chapter/12-2-pre-experimental-and-quasi-experimental-design/

Franco, P., & Yang, Y. N. (2021). Exiting fieldwork “with grace”: Reflections on the unintended consequences of participant observation and researcher-participant relationships. Qualitative Market Research: An International Journal, 24(3), 358-374. https://doi.org/10.1108/QMR-07-2020-0094

Halliday, M., Mill, D., Johnson, J., & Lee, K. (2022). Online focus group methodology: Recruitment, facilitation, and reimbursement. In S. P. Desselle, V. G. Cardenas, C. Anderson, P. Aslani, A. M. H. Chen, & T. F. Chen (Eds.), Contemporary research methods in pharmacy and health services (pp. 433-445). Elsevier Science & Technology. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-323-91888-6.00025-9

Jones, J. E., Jones, L. L., Calvert, M. J., Damery, S. L., & Mathers, J. M. (2022). A literature review of studies that have compared the use of face-to-face and online focus groups. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 21, 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1177/16094069221142406

McNabb, D. E. (2021). Research methods for political science: Quantitative, qualitative, and mixed method approaches (3rd ed.). Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.

Price, P. C., Jhangiani, R., Chiang, I. A., Leighton, D. C., & Cuttler, C. (2017). Research methods in psychology. https://opentext.wsu.edu/carriecuttler/chapter/observational-research/

Sallis, J. E., Gripsrud, G., Olsson, U. H., & Silkoset, R. (2021). Research methods and data analysis for business decisions: A primer using SPSS. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-84421-9

Sekaran, U., & Bougie, R. (2013). Research methods for business: A skill-building approach (6th ed.). John Wiley and Sons.

Williams, J. P. (2008). Nonparticipant observation. In L. M. Given (Ed.), Sage encyclopedia of qualitative research methods, (pp. 561-562). Sage.