2.3 Phonology
2.3.1 Phonotactics
While phonemes units may change their pronunciation in some environments, it is also possible that certain phonemes cannot be used in some environments at all. Each language has its own set of phonotactics, which are language-specific restrictions on what combinations of phonemes are allowed in which environments. For example, English has phonotactic restrictions that ban [tl] and [dl] in onsets, but this is not a universal restriction. Plenty of languages allow onsets with [tl] and [dl], such as Ngizim, which has words like [tlà] ‘cow’ (Schuh 1977), and Hebrew, which has words like [dli] ‘bucket’ (Klein 2020). Further examples of other patterns in English phonotactics include: English allows up to three consonants in an onset, but when there are three, the first must always be [s], the second must be one of [p], [t], or [k], and the third must be one of [r], [l], [j], or [w].
Phonotactics refers to the set of rules governing the permissible arrangements of sounds in a particular language. It deals with the restrictions on the sequence and combination of phonemes (speech sounds) that can occur in words, syllables, and across different positions in a language. Phonotactic constraints differ from language to language, shaping how speech sounds can be ordered and combined.
2.3.2 Prosody
While phonology typically focuses on the arrangement and distribution of individual sounds (phonemes), prosody looks at the higher-level patterns that organize these sounds across larger units of speech, such as syllables, words, phrases, or sentences. Prosody refers to the features of speech that involve pitch, loudness, duration, and rhythm. These elements are organised into patterns that are crucial for conveying meaning, emotion, and grammatical structures in speech. Prosody in phonology concerns the study of these larger speech patterns and their impact on language understanding.
Key Features of Prosody:
Pitch: The highness or lowness of the voice. It can convey different meanings, such as whether a sentence is a statement or a question.
Stress: Emphasis placed on certain syllables or words. Stressed syllables tend to be louder, longer, and more prominent than unstressed ones.
Intonation: The rise and fall of pitch across a sentence or phrase. Intonation patterns can indicate whether the speaker is asking a question, making a statement, or showing surprise, etc.
Rhythm: The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables. It influences the overall flow of speech.
Duration: The length of time a sound or syllable is held. This can influence meaning in some languages, like how vowel length in Japanese can differentiate words.
2.3.3 Suprasegmentals
Suprasegmentals are elements of speech that exist above the level of individual phonemes (the basic speech sounds) and are concerned with the prosodic features that extend over multiple segments of speech (such as syllables, words, or phrases). They influence how sequences of sounds are grouped and understood within larger units.
Key Suprasegmental Features:
Stress (which also ties into prosody): This can be applied to syllables, words, or phrases. It can change the meaning of a word or sentence depending on which syllable or word is emphasised.
EXAMPLE
In English, the word “record” can be stressed differently based on whether it is a noun or a verb:
- Record (noun) – The first syllable is stressed.
- record (verb) – The second syllable is stressed.
Intonation (which is part of prosody): The pattern of pitch variation across a sentence or phrase, which helps convey meaning like questioning, emphasis, or emotion.
EXAMPLE
In English, a rising pitch at the end of a sentence can signal a yes/no question:
- “You’re coming?” (rising intonation at the end indicates a question).
- “You’re coming.” (falling intonation at the end indicates a statement).
Tone: In tone languages, pitch or tone can change the meaning of a word. This is a type of suprasegmental feature, as tone applies across entire syllables or words.
EXAMPLE
In Mandarin Chinese, the word “ma” can have different meanings depending on the tone:
- mā (妈) with a high-level tone means “mother.”
- mǎ (马) with a rising tone means “horse.”
- mà (骂) with a falling tone means “scold.”
Syllable Timing and Rhythm: The timing between syllables can be stressed or unstressed, and this varies across languages.
- Stress-Timed Languages (like English): The rhythm is based on stressed syllables, and unstressed syllables are shorter in comparison.
- Syllable-Timed Languages (like Spanish or French): Each syllable is given roughly equal time, regardless of whether it is stressed or not.
Length and Duration: In some languages, the length of sounds, syllables, or words can be phonemic and can change the meaning of a word or phrase
EXAMPLE
In Japanese, vowel length is important:
- “biru” (ビル) with a short vowel means “building.”
- “biiru” (ビール) with a long vowel means “beer.”
Chapter Attribution
This chapter has been adapted in parts from:
Essentials of Linguistics (2nd edition) by Anderson et al. (2022). Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.
Phonotactics refers to the set of rules governing the permissible arrangements of sounds in a particular language. It deals with the restrictions on the sequence and combination of phonemes (speech sounds) that can occur in words, syllables, and across different positions in a language.
Prosody refers to the features of speech that involve pitch, loudness, duration, and rhythm.
Suprasegmentals are elements of speech that exist above the level of individual phonemes (the basic speech sounds) and are concerned with the prosodic features that extend over multiple segments of speech (such as syllables, words, or phrases).
